Schaefer, 2014b, 2017), possible functions (Schacter et al., 2007), and neural correlates (Kosslyn et al., 1999), there are still important questions to be answered. Although there are certain differences between the two in underlying cognitive mechanisms and neural brain areas, the similarity between perception or action and imagery is evident in the overlap of the brain areas that are active for visual (e.g., Chen et al., 1998 Ishai et al., 2000 Johnson & Johnson, 2014 Kosslyn et al., 1999 O'Craven & Kanwisher, 2000 Stokes et al., 2009), auditory (e.g., Aleman et al., 2005 Halpern, 2001 Herholz et al., 2012 Schaefer et al., 2011, 2013 Tian et al., 2018 Watanabe et al., 2020), and motor modalities (Jeannerod, 2001 Munzert et al., 2009).ĭespite substantial progress in research on various aspects of imagery, such as the typology of stimulus modality and intentionality level (cf. Imagery imitates perception (or action) in several ways. Additionally, imagery onset can be voluntary – when we deliberately generate a specific image, as well as involuntary – when imagery emerges in the mind spontaneously, with no intention to experience it. Similar to perception and action, imagery can be experienced in different sensory and stimulus modalities, for example, the visual, auditory (music, speech, and environmental/artificial sounds), olfactory, gustatory, and tactile, as well as movement (which is thought to include proprioceptive and visual elements). Pearson ( 2007) describes mental imagery as the simulation or re-creation of perceptual experience in the absence of a corresponding direct external stimulus from the physical environment. Different kinds of imagery relate to a range of processes such as memory recall and future thinking (Moulton & Kosslyn, 2009 Schacter et al., 2007), decision-making (Pham et al., 2001), navigation (Bocchi et al., 2017), and mental training (Clark et al., 2012), but also pathological symptomatology (e.g., obsessive-compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Mental imagery supports several aspects of healthy as well as pathological cognition and has received considerable interest in cognitive psychology research. The study’s findings can inform the growing domain of applications of mental imagery to clinical and pedagogical settings. These results replicate previous research but also contribute new insights, showing that individual differences in age, sex, and background experience are associated with various aspects of imagery such as modality, intentionality, vividness, and frequency. Moreover, all imagery stimulus modalities were associated with each other, for both intentionality levels, except involuntary musical imagery frequency, which was only related to higher voluntary auditory imagery vividness. The findings show weak positive associations between age and increased vividness of voluntary auditory imagery and decreased involuntary musical imagery frequency, weak associations between being female and more vivid visual imagery, and relations of greater music and video game experience with higher involuntary musical imagery frequency. The current online study combined multiple imagery self-report measures in a sample ( n = 279) with a substantial age range (18–65 years), aiming to identify whether age, sex, or background experience in sports, music, or video games were associated with aspects of imagery in the visual, auditory, or motor stimulus modality and voluntary or involuntary intentionality level. A more comprehensive account of mental imagery aspects would be gained by examining individual differences in age, sex, and background experience in an activity and their association with imagery in different modalities and intentionality levels.
While substantial progress is being made in clarifying this fundamental human function, much is still unclear or unknown. Mental imagery is a highly common component of everyday cognitive functioning.
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